121 1596-1650 1632-1677 1638-1715 1646-1716 17thcentury 18thcentury 194 benedictusde criticismandinterpretationdescartes criticismandinterpretationleibniz criticismandinterpretationmalebranche criticismandinterpretationspinoza descartes firstphilosophy french god gottfriedwilhelm history historyofdoctrines knowledge leibniz methodology nicolas occasionalism perception(philosophy) philosophy rené rené spinoza theoryof