1749-1832 1838-1897 1849-1905 1877-1938 1889-1940 19thcentury 20thcentury afghānī afghānī authors autonomyandindependencemovements biography correspondence criticismandinterpretationiqbal history ibnbādīs islam islamicphilosophy islamicrenewal jamālal-dīn jamālal-dīn johannwolfgangvon muhammad muḥammadʻabduh muḥammadʻabduh pakistan pakistanmovement persian philosophers philosophie poets politicians traveliqbal urdu viewsonislamgoethe ʻabdal-ḥamīd